The American Revolution was complex in its German contexts. Three Hanoverian kings, the Georges, had occupied the throne of Great Britain, preserving a royal blood line and ensuring Protestantism. And the Georges were only the latest of the Protestant British monarchs who had shown mercy and support to beleaguered German-speaking Protestants. In particular Queen Anne had opened the floodgates to those streaming up the Rhine. German immigrants in Pennsylvania and elsewhere had sworn or affirmed an oath of loyalty to a British monarch and had received protection, freedom of religion, and opportunities for a better life. For many of them, the aims of the revolutionaries offered confusing and contradictory prospects. At the same time, Hesse-Cassel and some other Protestant states had subsidy treaties with the Hanoverian kings. Britain supplied funds for the building of roads and bridges and princely art collections, while those states agreed to provide soldiers to defend Great Britain and its colonies abroad. The soldiers were commonly identified as Hessians, though that identity belonged to perhaps half of them. Finally, some soldiers, the best-known being Baron von Steuben, were attracted to the American cause. Even King Frederick II of Prussia tended to block the passage of Hessian troops where he held outposts on the Rhine, though these men were simply marched overland to another location.
The expanding field of German-language journalism took great interest in the American rebellion and was remarkably evenhanded in reprinting stories from the war. Some conservative journalists made grave forecasts about what dangers could arise from an American victory, and charged that the German public too often held a thoughtless predilection for the rebels, and did not properly respect the sacrifices their soldiers were making abroad. In the end, most German writers accepted the correctness of an American victory and saw American leaders as admirable human beings. Some Germans, like General von Steuben, played an important role in that victory.
Johann Martin Will, 1727-1806. "Vorstellung der Bataille d. 4. 8br 1777 so zwischë[n] den Engelländern unter Anführung des General Howe ... unweit Germano …". From: [Zehn Karten und Ansichten von den Schlachtfeldern des amerikanischen Unabhängigkeitskrieges in den Staaten Pennsylvanien und New York]. [Augsburg? ca. 1780?].
The Battle of Germantown was fought on October 4 between General Howe’s British and Hessian forces and the continental army and militiamen under George Washington. Germantown, originally settled by immigrants in 1683, was at this time still an outlying community beyond the limits of Philadelphia. Howe had seized Philadelphia, then the continental capital, and Washington boldly attempted to reclaim it. In Germantown, British forces seized the sturdy Chew mansion as a defensive position. However, confusion reigned due to an early morning fog, and Washington’s attack failed for a variety of reasons. In the battle, 152 Americans were killed, 521 were wounded, and over 400 were taken prisoner. Among the British losses were 71 killed and 448 wounded, with 14 missing and 24 Hessians among those numbers. Despite American defeats that fall, foreign observers were impressed with Washington’s skill and audacity, and American successes were taken as portents for the future of the war. The French determined to offer increased assistance, and the Prussian King Frederick William thought the American army would prove formidable in the future.
Franz Xavier Habermann, 1721-1796. "La Destruction de la Statuë royale a Nouvelle Yorck. Die Zerstörung der königlichen Bildsäule zu Neu Yorck." [Augsburg]: l'Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux, [ca. 1776].
On July 10, 1776, after news of the Declaration of Independence reached New York City, a crowd gathered to hear a reading of the document and was inspired to tear down the equestrian statue of George III that stood in Bowling Green. This view is a fictitious rendering of the location and the statue.
This perspective view, or "vue d'optique," was a special type of popular print published in Europe during the 18th century. These prints were viewed through a device called an “optical machine” or an “optique.”
Franz Xavier Habermann, 1721-1796. "Representation du feu terrible a Nouvelle Yorck. Schröckensvolle Feuersbrunst welche zu Neu Yorck von den Americanern in der Nacht vom 19. Herbst Monat 1776. angelegt worden." Augsburg: Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux, [ca. 1780].
On September 21, 1776, a destructive fire raced through New York City after Washington's army abandoned the city to the British. Since firefighting equipment had been sabotaged and warning bells had been melted for bullets by the colonists, the British suspected arson. A large part of the city from Trinity Church to the King's College was destroyed; it was estimated that one fourth of the city's dwellings were lost. This view is probably of a European town and is a fictitious rendering of New York City. The image title in French is printed in reverse above the image.
Habermann was one of the most original engravers in the rococo style. The print shown is of the genre of “vues optiques” of imaginary scenes. The “vue d’optique” was a special kind of popular print published in Europe in the eighteenth century. They were viewed through a device called an “optical machine” or an “optique.”
Franz Xavier Habermann, 1721-1796. "L'entré triumphale de troupes royales a Nouvelle Yorck. Einzug der Königlichen Völcker in Neu Yorck." Augsburg: Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux, [ca. 1780].
A theoretical representation of British troops marching triumphantly through city streets at the onset of the British occupation of New York. This is another perspective view of the “vue d'optique” variety, and a fictitious image.
Washington anticipated a British attack on New York, and ordered it fortified, assuming local command. However, the British forces were able to seize control of the city through a series of battles on the outskirts, including Long Island, Harlem Heights, and Fort Washington. After establishing control, they were able to hold the city without challenge until 1783. The homes belonging to rebels were distributed among British officers, and loyalist refugees began flowing into town.
"Vuë de Boston. Prospect des Plazes vor dem Rath Haus zu Boston. Vuë de la Rue et de la Maison de Ville a Boston. Augsburg: au Negoce com[m]un de l'Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux." [ca. 1776].
This view was meant to show the old state house, built in 1657, which was the center of government for the colony of Massachusetts and Boston, as well as the public marketplace. This view is however a fictitious rendering, of the “vues optiques” genre. In the background are dwellings and government buildings, while figures in the foreground go about everyday affairs.
"Vuë de de la basse Ville a Quebeck. Prospect von der untern Stadt in Quebec gegen St. Laurenz Fluss. Vuë de la basse Ville a Quebec vers le fleuve St. Laurent." Augsburg: l'Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux, [ca. 1776].
Displayed in this print is a river view of Quebec City. The landscape includes a ship, a boat, dwellings, and a tower with fortifications. Men with arms in the foreground are loading a boat. This view is probably of a European town and is a fictitious rendering of Quebec.
Balthazar Frederic Leizelt. "Vuë de Philadelphie. Philadelphia. Die haupt Stadt in der Nord-Americansichen Provinz Pensylvanien ... Philadelphia. La Ville Capitale de Pensylvanie, Province Nord-Americaine." [Augsburg: l'Academie Imperiale d'Empire des Arts libereaux [ca. 1776].
This is presented as a view of Philadelphia, showing a harbor with ships with British flags and boats. In the background are churches, government buildings, and dwellings. This view is not actually of Philadelphia, but is one half of William Woollett's engraving of the Royal Dock Yard at Deptford, England. The other half of that engraving was transformed by Leizelt into a view of New York. These prints are examples of the “Vues d’optiques” in the Collection des prospects series intended to be shown in a peep show. For that reason the captions are in mirror writing. In Germany the apparatus used for peep shows or raree shows was called “Guckkasten” or “Schaukasten.”
Johann Christoph Krauseneck, 1738-1799. Die Werbung für England: ein ländliches Lustspiel in einem Aufzuge … Aufgeführt auf dem Churfürstlichen Theater zu München.
[Augsburg?] 1777.
The stage play by a scarcely known playwright uses the urgency of the American war to establish the framework for a romantic crisis. The principal character, Fritz Knauf, is in apparent danger of conscription under the arrangements made by King George with Hesse and other German states to supply soldiers for foreign wars. In the conclusion, Fritz is declared too young for conscription, and the lovers are free to marry. Hessian mercenaries, often from other German states and generally draftees, were an essential part of the British war effort, and German-speaking soldiers served King George in Rhode Island and other places of war and occupation.
Christoph Heinrich Korn, 1726-1783. Geschichte der Kriege in und ausser Europa vom Anfange des Aufstandes der brittischen Kolonien in Nordamerika an. [Nürnberg: Gabriel Nicolaus Raspe], 1776-1784.
These extensive accounts were based on various documents and letters, many of them translated from English, French, Spanish and Dutch sources. The series is predominantly on events in America, especially North America. One of various images and maps is this view of George Washington, “Americanischer Generalissimus.” The engraving is after the equestrian portrait by Alexander Campbell, who was apparently fictitious. Washington wrote that he never had met Campbell. This view lacks the horse and background of the Campbell-named engraving.
Wilhelm Ludwig Wekhrlin, 1739-1792. Chronologen. Ein periodisches Werk. Frankfurt & Leipzig: Felssecker Bookstore, 1779-1781.
The “Chronologen” was a literary and cultural journal focused mostly on European affairs, but including articles critical of the American revolution. As the editor of this literary and cultural journal, Wekhrlin incorporated much material from other periodicals, but a large part of it was drawn from his own thinking, and it was very much a journal of opinion. He complained that the German press was in general uncritically supportive of the American rebellion, when it was in his view the insurgency of a willful rabble against a lawful, enlightened government. Wekhrlin cited the Salem witch trials of the previous century as portending what might be expected of a victorious rebel regime. He thought Germans should be more supportive as well of the troops provided by Hesse and other German states. Overall, enlightened European culture was at stake:
“If America takes us, then the entire enterprise of Columbus is for naught. Europe will fall back into the darkness that was its lot in the Middle Ages. The technology and science that owe their awakening to the discovery of America, will die. All of Europe will ossify, and the beguiled public will recognize, too late, that it was the mere joke of an ill-advised world of journalism.”
Matthias Christian Sprengel, 1746-1803. Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch, oder, Abriss der merkwürdigsten neuen Welt-Begebenheiten : enthaltend für 1784 die Geschichte der Revolution von Nord-America. Berlin: Haude & Spener, [1784].
Illustrations here are by Daniel Chodowiecki (1726-1801) and Daniel Berger (1744-1825). In one copy, Washington, General Gates, Franklin, President Henry Laurens (Continental Congress), and John Paul Jones are depicted. Another copy shows the American flag and aides to General Washington in a hand-colored version.
Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin, Baron von Steuben, d1730-1794. [Manuscript draft of expenses]. 1786.
Shown here is one of two manuscript drafts of his expenses that Steuben prepared for government compensation. The Prussian-born officer was invaluable to the war effort. He served as inspector general and Major General during the Revolution, and was a key agent in inculcating the essentials of drills, disciplines, and tactics. He wrote the official drill manual and served as General Washington’s chief of staff in the last years of the war.
Matthias Christian Sprengel, 1746-1803. Geschichte der Revolution von Nord-America. Frankenthal: Gegelische Buchdruckerey, 1788.
Shown here is a map of the new United States and surrounding colonies. Sprengel was one of the leading scholars of his time. From 1779 he held a professorship at Halle, serving there also as Librarian. He regarded the results of the American Revolution as highly favorable for both Europe and America. With conservative enthusiasm, he portrayed an American utopia of freedom, opportunity, prosperity and peace.
Displayed separately are a series of engravings commissioned by Sprengel for one of his publications. They were executed by Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki (1726-1801), a Polish-German painter and engraver noted as an illustrator for books. This group shows (1)the Stamp Act riots of August 1764, (2) the Boston tea party of December 1773, (3) shots fired at Lexington in April 1775, (4) the Battle of Bunker Hill of June 1775, (5) signing of the Declaration of Independence of July 1776, and (6) captured Hessians being escorted by General George Washington in Trenton in December 1776. Included are scenes of warfare and naval battles, ships, soldiers, and guns or muskets. African-Americans and Native Americans are also present. The work was sold by Haude & Spener in Berlin in 1784.
Ebeling, Christophe Daniel Ebeling, 1741-1817. Erdbeschreibung und Geschichte von Amerika. Hamburg: Carl Ernst Bohn, 1793-1816.
Ebeling was one of the most important figures in bringing about a closer intellectual relationship between the United States and Germany. As a librarian in the State Library in Hamburg, he was commissioned to supply a number of German universities, libraries, and individual scholars with the latest and best American publications. His personal library of 3000 volumes was sold to Harvard the year after his death. In this volume he includes generous and thorough narratives of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.
Exhibition prepared by dennis landis.
on view in the reading room from may to September 15, 2013.
Images: Das Kleine Davidische Psalterspiel der Kinder Zions, Ephrata, 1795 & Hernán Cortés, Ferdinandi Cortesii. Von dem Newen Hispanien, Augsburg, 1550